翻譯:李鐳(pigeondog)
校訂:hsomeguy(ted_hsomeguy@hotmail.com)


阿登奈克語─努曼諾爾的國語

亦可拼為: Adunaic(源於Lowdham的報告,本文的主要資料來源;但在《魔戒》附錄中的拼法為Adûnaic。)
亦可稱為: 努曼諾爾語(Númenórean)


發展史

當太陽第一次升起,人類在希爾多瑞恩(Hildórien)甦醒時,他們馬上就開始發明語言,就像幾千年前在庫維因恩(Cuiviénen)甦醒的精靈那樣。但正如我們所知,人類並不像萬物嫡傳之子那樣有創造力:「對字詞的渴望在我們之中覺醒,我們開始創造它們。但我們人太少了,而這個世界是如此寬廣奇異。雖然我們極力想瞭解她,但學習是非常困難的,因此字詞的創造便很緩慢。」(《魔苟斯的戒指》345頁)。如果真的曾有一種完全由凡人創造的語言,它也在人類的代表們到達貝爾蘭的時候,受到了廣泛影響。費拉剛(Felagund)花不了多少時間就理解了比歐(Bë)及其子民的語言,因為「這些人類長期和山脈東邊的黑精靈打交道,從他們那裡學到了很多他們的語言,又因為所有昆蒂(Quendi)的語言都是同源的,所以比歐及其人民的語言在很多字句及想法上都與精靈語相似。」(《精靈寶鑽》第十七章)。人類很明顯地也和矮人有來往,並從凱薩德語(Khuzdul),主神奧力為他的子民們創造的語言中借鑒了許多:在《中土世界民族錄》:317中,托爾金提到「有一種理論(可能的理論之一)說,在未有記載的過去,一些人類語言--包括亞塔尼(Atani)的語言中那些重要的成份,阿登奈克就源自於此--受到了凱薩德語的影響」。我們沒有足夠的資料,所以無法把純人類語成份從矮人語和黑精靈語元素中鑒別出來。

在貝爾蘭,人類熱切地學習辛達語,「不過他們自己的語言也沒有被遺忘,他們還從中衍生出努曼諾爾的通用語」(《精靈寶鑽》第十七章)。第一紀元結束於憤怒之戰,主神最終在貝爾蘭施展浩劫之力,征服了魔苟斯,但貝爾蘭也完全被摧毀了,從此沈入海底。然而,人類因其在對抗魔苟斯的戰爭中所承受的苦難而得到了豐厚的回報。(順帶一提,有誰能在貝爾蘭的毀滅中生還?托爾金教授對這從來沒有做過解釋。要是魔茍斯的敵人在全大陸進行疏散,祂難道不會起疑心嗎?唔,管他的……)主神從海中升起一座大島,比中土世界更接近維林諾(Valinor)。伊甸人跨海來到這裡,找到了他們新的家園,並由埃蘭迪爾之子愛洛斯領導人類,建立了努曼諾爾。這個王國一直延續了三千兩百八十七年,直到亞爾-法拉松打破主神禁令,向西航行,攻取海外仙境的那可怕的一天。

星辰之地還存在時的語言環境又是什麼樣的?在《未完成的故事》164頁的努曼諾爾地圖上,地名都是昆雅語,但同一本書中也告訴我們,昆雅語在努曼諾爾並不是一種會話語言。這裡的所有地點都有「官方」的高精靈語名稱,並被用於公文內,但在日常生活中,人們則是以相同意義的辛達語或阿登奈克語稱呼這些地方。大多數人都懂辛達語,或稱為灰精靈語--努曼諾爾的貴族甚至用它作為日常用語。但一般人使用的國語一直都是阿登奈克語,一種人類語言,來自於那些曾與精靈並肩對抗魔苟斯的人類的語言。

在阿登奈克語之中,努曼諾爾或稱西方皇族之地被稱為亞那督尼( Anadûnê)。在這個王國三千年的發展史中,其語言也一直在經歷各種變化。一些音消失了,另一些則被融合了,因此一些子音被捨棄。另一方面,新的母音也出現了:最初的阿登奈克語只有「a」、「i」和「u」三個基本母音,但後來雙元音「ai」和「au」被簡化為長音「ê」和「ô」。除了語音方面的變化之外,這種語言還跟精靈語借了不少的名字。比如說,昆雅語中的lómë「夜晚」就成為了阿登奈克語的lômi;有趣的是,這個單字還保有其寫意的維林諾語含義:lômi為一個星光下的美好夜晚,那種黑暗並不會讓人覺得陰沈沮喪。我們還找到了其他的精靈語名字,特別是主神的名字:Amân「Manwë(曼威)」、Avradî「Varda(瓦爾妲)」、Mulkhêr「Melkor(馬爾寇)」。不過,有一些看似來自昆雅語的單字實際上卻另有其源。在昆雅語中,代表「天空、天堂」的單字是menel,在阿登奈克語裡則是minal,後者一定是伊甸人的祖先在沒有進入貝爾蘭之前就採用的亞維瑞語(Avarin,黑精靈語)單字。它之所以會和昆雅語單字相似,是因為高精靈語和黑精靈語都源於同一種語言。事實上,在Lowdham的報告中提到了不少這種明顯阿登奈克語借用精靈語單字的例子:


          adûn 「西方」(《索倫的覆滅》:247),辛達語:dûn(《失落之道及其他故事》:376)。

          ammî , ammê 「母親」(《索倫的覆滅》:434),昆雅語:ammë(《失落之道及其他故事》:348),似乎是較晚期從昆雅語借鑑而來的。

          attû, attô「父親」(《索倫的覆滅》:434),昆雅語:atar,簡稱atto(《失落之道及其他故事》:349)。

          azra「海洋」(《索倫的覆滅》:429),明顯源於古精靈語AYAR(昆雅語:ëar)(《失落之道及其他故事》:349)。

          「不要」(《索倫的覆滅》:250),古精靈語:*BA「不!」,昆雅語:vá,帖勒瑞林語:bá「我不要」或「不要」,辛達語:baw!「不!不要!」(《珠寶之戰》:370-371)。

          bêth「表情,言語,詞彙」(《索倫的覆滅》:427),辛達語:peth(輕音則是beth,「詞彙」)。bêth來自於BITH一詞(《索倫的覆滅》:416),可能是源於古精靈語*KWET「說,講」改變為亞維瑞語後的單字,伊甸人的祖先從黑精靈那裡把它借過來。(我們知道至少有一個亞維瑞語為「p」但源自於「*kw」,因此是有可能有一種方言「p」在增加了一個音之後成為了「b」。)參見:後來的西方語batta「交談者」。

          khôr 「王者」(例如Adûnakhôr「西方之王」),精靈語:KHER(管轄、統治、持有,《失落之道及其他故事》:364),昆雅語:heru(王者)。

          lâi「傢伙」,昆雅語:lië(《索倫的覆滅》:435),明顯來自於其中一種亞維瑞的方言lai(《珠寶之戰》:410)。

          lôkhî(「彎曲的」,《索倫的覆滅》:247),艾爾達語lok-「彎曲,環」(《精靈寶鑽》附錄)

          narû「人類」(《索倫的覆滅》:434),精靈語:NERE(《珠寶之戰》:393,不過根據《詞源學》,其原型為DER,加上特別的昆雅語形式NÊR--見《失落之道及其他故事》:354,376)。

還有更多的例子繁不及載。這加重了一些沒有加進已出版的《魔戒》中,法拉墨說過的話:「世界上所有的人類語言都是傳承自精靈語。」(《魔戒聖戰》:159/《中土世界民族錄》:53。至於阿登奈克語,我們必須考慮到矮人語的影響,其影響並不弱於精靈語。)但儘管阿登奈克語擁有大量的精靈語元素,它還是被視為一種人類語言。雖然它是一般人使用語用,但我們的印象中並沒有獲得像精靈語那樣的尊重。我們可以將這種情況與中世紀的歐洲相比:那時通俗語的地位比高貴的拉丁語低太多了,雖然很少有人通曉後者。《努曼諾爾人淪亡史》告訴我們,「除了他們自己的【阿登奈克語】名字之外,所有努曼諾爾貴族都有艾爾達語名」,而至於前十五代王者,則只有昆雅語名。當然,據說第六代王奧達瑞安(Aldarion)偏愛阿登奈克語,而不是艾爾達語(《未完成的故事》:194),但這個事件是作為反常的特例而提出的。阿登奈克語後來漸漸得勢,但這只是因為一切有關精靈的事物失寵罷了。

進入第二紀元之的兩千年後,在塔爾-克亞單(Tar-Ciryatan)及其繼承人塔爾-阿塔那米爾(Tar-Atanamir)的統治之下,努曼諾爾開始嫉妒精靈及其的永生。維林諾(Valinor)和努曼諾爾之間的友誼漸漸冷卻,而到了塔爾-安卡理蒙(Tar-Ancalimon)統治的時期,努曼諾爾人停止向自己的孩子教導一度受到尊敬的精靈語。國王們還是在使用昆雅語名,但那只是因為千年傳統的習慣。據記載,第十六代國王就開始同時使用高精靈語名和阿登奈克語名:塔爾-卡馬希爾(Tar-Calmacil)及亞爾-博紮加(Ar-Belzagar)--而仇恨所有的精靈事物的「國王的手下」則只使用後者。不過要一直等到第二十代國王登基時,才唯獨使用了阿登奈克語名:亞爾-阿督那克爾(Ar-Adûnakhôr),「西方之王」。即使他在國王本紀中將這個名字翻譯成昆雅語Tar-Herunúmen,但還是招致了精靈之友的不滿,因為只有主神曼威(Manwë)才有資格被稱做西方之王。阿登那霍(Adûnakhôr)的後兩任繼承人均延續了他的先例,只用阿登奈克語為名。然而,二十四代國王亞爾-印西拉頓(Ar-Inziladûn)想要恢復與精靈、主神的友誼,並以昆雅語替自己命名為帕蘭提(Palantir),意為遠見者。他是最後一個抵制阿登奈克語的努曼諾爾國王。這位國王沒有兒子,在他死後,她的女兒密瑞爾(Míriel)本應成為女王,但她的堂兄法拉松未經她同意就娶她為妻,以便成為下一任君王。他無法忍受她的昆雅語名密瑞爾,於是用阿登奈克語,重新將她命名為吉姆拉佛(我們認為這同樣沒有得到她的同意)。亞爾-法拉松挑戰中土世界的索倫,而這個邪惡的邁雅趁機詐降,順利地進入了努曼諾爾。我們都知道,他憑藉他的狡詐,迅速成為國王的首席顧問,爾後又成為他創立的魔教(或者應該說魔苟斯教)的主教。如果說精靈語在索倫到來之前沒有受到高度的尊敬,那麼現在的情況也好不到那裡去。然而,索倫的首要目標是引誘法拉松侵略阿門洲,進而引發努曼諾爾和主神之間的戰爭。索倫清楚前者會被後者徹底擊垮、消滅。索倫最終如願以償,而正如祂所預見的,這場戰爭導致了努曼諾爾的末日,它還代表著傳統阿登奈克語的終結。在陸沉後少數生還的努曼諾爾人中,主要是都精靈之友,由伊蘭迪爾、安那瑞安和埃西鐸率領。根據《中土世界民族錄》:315的記述,阿登奈克語並沒有進入中土世界:生還的努曼諾爾忠實者全部使用辛達語,而對阿登奈克語沒什麼好感,因為這種語言在他們眼裡,代表著叛逆國王們鎮壓精靈語的語言。乏人問津的阿登奈克語,變成了Westron西方語,也就是後來的通用語。(我們不知道那些在陸沈前坐船駛向中土世界,最後在哈拉德林人中建立政權的邪惡黑努曼諾爾人,是否保留並培養出了更為純正的阿登奈克語--至少應該要把它當作一種貴族語或是學術性語言。)

創作史

Tolkien devised Adûnaic shortly after World War II. It was intended to have a "faintly Semitic flavour" or style (SD:240). This new language grew out of his work on the so-called "Notion Club Papers" and his revision of the legend of Númenor. One of the members of this fictitious club (inspired by the Inklings!) supposedly learnt Adûnaic in visionary dreams of the far past. He even wrote an account of it, "Lowdham's Report on the Adûnaic Language", now published by Christopher Tolkien in Sauron Defeated p. 413-440. The fact that Tolkien never completed Lowdham's Report - it breaks off before it reaches the verb - and did no further work on Adûnaic may be a blessing in disguise. As Christopher Tolkien puts it: "Had he returned to the development of Adunaic, 'Lowdham's Report' as we have it would doubtless have been reduced to a wreck, as new conceptions caused shifts and upheavals in the structure. More than likely, he would have begun again, refining the historical phonology - and perhaps never yet reaching the Verb... 'Incompletion' and unceasing change, often frustrating to those who study these languages, was inherent in this art. But in the case of Adunaic, as things turned out, a stability was achieved, though incomplete: a substantial account of one of the great languages of Arda." (SD:439-440)

It seems, however, that Tolkien while writing the appendices to LotR was about to reject the whole concept of a special Númenórean language, despite all his work on Adûnaic less than a decade earlier. He toyed with the idea that the Edain had abandoned their Mannish tongue and adopted "the Elvish Noldorin" (read: Sindarin) instead. See PM:63. The idea that the Númenóreans spoke Elvish represented a revival of an earlier conception: In LR:68 it is said that Sauron, hating all things Elvish, taught the Númenóreans the old Mannish tongue they themselves had forgotten. Here the implication seems to be that the Númenóreans spoke Quenya; see Christopher Tolkien's note in LR:75. But Tolkien changed his mind several times, back and forth; the final outcome was that the Edain never abandoned their own tongue after all. By being mentioned and exemplified in the appendices to LotR, Adûnaic became a fixed part of the mythos.

語言概論

There are no coherent Adûnaic texts. Except single words scattered around in Lowdham's Report, most of the corpus consists of a number of fragmentary sentences given in SD:247, with Lowdham's interlinear translation. The translation given here is based on it; a few gaps have been filled. (In accordance with the fiction Tolkien's character Lowdham did not know the meaning of a few of the words, but their meanings can be found in other places: Zigûrun is the Wizard, namely Sauron, and Nimruzîr is the Adûnaic equvalent of Quenya Elendil. I have also added some capital letters in the Adûnaic fragments. In the fiction, Lowdham did not know that the words in question were names.)

Kadô Zigûrun zabathân unakkha... "And so / [the] Wizard / humbled / he came..."
...Êruhînim dubdam Ugru-dalad... "...[the] Eruhíni [Children of Eru] / fell / under [the] Shadow..."
...Ar-Pharazônun azaggara Avalôiyada... "...Ar-Pharazôn / was warring / against [the] Valar..."
...Bârim an-Adûn yurahtam dâira sâibêth-mâ Êruvô "...[the] Lords of [the] West / broke / the Earth / with [the] assent / of Eru..."
...azrîya du-phursâ akhâsada "...seas /so as to gush/ into [the] chasm..."
...Anadûnê zîrân hikallaba... "...Númenor / [the] beloved / she fell down..."
...bawîba dulgî... "...[the] winds [were] black..." (lit. simply "winds / black")
...balîk hazad an-Nimruzîr azûlada... "...ships / seven / of Elendil / eastward..."
Agannâlô burôda nênud... "Death-shadow / heavy /on us..."
...zâira nênud... "...longing [is] / on us..."
...adûn izindi batân tâidô ayadda: îdô kâtha batîna lôkhî... "...west / [a] straight / road / once / went / now / all / roads / [are] crooked..."
Êphalak îdôn Yôzâyan "Far away / now [is] / [the] Land of Gift..."
Êphal êphalak îdôn hi-Akallabêth "Far / far away / now [is] / She-that-hath-fallen"

There are also a few Adûnaic exclamations made by members of the Notion Club "speaking in tongues":

Bâ kitabdahê! "Don't touch me!" (SD:250)
Narîka 'nBâri 'nAdûn yanâkhim. "The Eagles of the Lords of the West are at hand." (SD:251)
Urîd yakalubim! "The mountains lean over!" (SD:251)

The translations given here are sentences occurring together with the Adûnaic words. It is not explicitly stated that they are the translations, but from the Adûnaic words themselves it seems virtually certain that they are.

語言結構

As noted by Christopher Tolkien, his father actually wrote a substantial account of Adûnaic, namely Lowdham's Report in SD:413-440. This situation is unique in Tolkienian linguistics; normally we have to piece together information and analyze samples scattered over a great number of books. Adûnaic would have been a language we could use with some confidence if the available vocabulary had not been so small. As a relatively detailed account is available, the serious student is referred to Sauron Defeated. Only a succinct survey of the main points of the grammar is given here, and the fairly detailed description of the phonology (and its development) is passed over. To reproduce all the information in Lowdham's Report is pointless, as Tolkien's own account is readily available. (The complex information regarding different noun classes and their inflection would have had to be reproduced almost word by word anyway.) In the case of the verb, though, we must rely on our own analysis, as Tolkien never reached that part of speech in his account. Neither does Lowdham's Report tell us much about adjectives. It is mainly concerned with the phonology and the general structure of the language, and gives what seems to be a pretty exhaustive account of how nouns is inflected.

基本架構

Like the Semitic languages of our own age, Adûnaic employs a system of triconsonantal word-bases, apparently adopted from Khuzdul at some point in the past. (Some bases have only two consonants.) But unlike the system in Khuzdul (we think), each consonantal base is also associated with a certain vowel that has to be present somewhere in all words derived from this base (though it may be modified). Thus KARAB, sc. the consonantal base K-R-B with the "characteristic vowel" a, means something wholly different than KIRIB - a quite distinct consonantal base K-R-B that can be told apart from the other exactly because it is married to another "characteristic vowel", namely i.

Normally, the "characteristic vowel" (CV) appears between the first and second consonant of the stem. Thus the base G-M-L with the CV i, meaning "star" or "stars", produces actual words like gimli, gimlê, gimlu, gimlat, gimlî, gimlîya (SD:413), sc. the noun "star" in various cases and numbers. But the CV may also be prefixed (IGMIL), suffixed (GIMLI) or wholly suppressed in its normal place between the first and the second consonant (-GMIL, with some other vowel prefixed). New words can be derived by moving the CV around like this: while gimli is the normal word "star", igmil means "a star-shaped figure" (SD:427). But if the CV ever disappeared wholly, it would become impossible to tell apart words having the same consonants in the stem. The golden rule is therefore that "one of the vowels of a basic stem must be either the CV or one of its normal modifications" (SD:423, on which page the modifications are described for those who are sufficiently interested).

名詞

It is practical to distinguish various genders of the Adûnaic noun, as in many Germanic languages: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter. However, Adûnaic also has a so-called Common gender. In languages like German or the Scandinavian languages, there is for the most part no logical connection between the nature of the thing and its gender: True, German Mann, Frau, Haus "man, woman, house" are Masculine, Feminine and Neuter, respectively, but most words denoting inanimate objects can belong to any gender, and it has often been pointed out that words like Mädchen "girl" and Weib "wife" are Neuter rather than Feminine. On the other hand, a semantically sex-neutral noun like Mensch "human being" is grammatically speaking masculine. This arbitrary distribution of genders is not found in Adûnaic. Indeed Tolkien/Lowdham doubted whether the word gender should strictly be used of the Adûnaic noun-classes at all; the classes refer directly to sex (SD:426), or in the case of Neuter and Common nouns, to sexlessness. Masculine nouns denote words applying to male beings and their functions (such as "father"), the Feminina are the same for female beings, and the Neuters apply to inanimate objects. The only exceptions involve inanimate objects being personified. For instance, the Neuter word for sun, ûrê, turns into feminine Ûrî if the Sun is considered a female being (influenced by the Elvish myth that the Sun is the last fruit of Laurelin carried across the sky by the female Maia Arien). The Common gender is used in the case of nouns that are not characterized as to sex, such as anâ "human being" and names of animals (when not specially characterized; karab "horse" is Common, but karbû "stallion" and karbî "mare" are logically Masculine and Feminine, respectively). Masculine gender is often associated with the final consonants -k, -r, -n, -d; cf. masculine names like Gimilkhâd, Gimilzôr, Pharazôn. Feminine gender is associated with -th, -l, -s, -z; cf. feminine names like Inzilbêth, Zimraphel. (But these rules are not absolute, especially in the case of personal names; Azrubêl, the Adûnaic translation of Quenya Eärendil "Sea-lover", is obviously not a feminine name.) Common and Neuter nouns are more ill-defined in form, but Tolkien/Lowdham presents some general rules in SD:427, like Common nouns preferring the vowel -a, â in the last syllable.

More fundamental than the four "genders" is the division of all nouns into Strong and Weak: "Strong nouns form the Plural, and in some cases certain other forms, by modification of the last vowel of the Stem. Weak nouns add inflexions in all cases" (SD:425).

The Adûnaic noun is inflected for three numbers: Singular, dual and plural. Furthermore, it is inflected for three forms that may be called cases: A so-called Normal form, a Subjective form and an Objective form. For more detailed information about the various noun-classes and their inflection, see SD:436-438.

As the name strongly suggests, the Normal is the basic, uninflected form of the noun. In other words, the Normal singular is not morphologically marked as such by any affix. The Normal is used in cases where Adûnaic grammar does not demand either the Subjective or the Objective (see below). The Normal is typically used when the noun is the object or the predicate of the sentence, as in Ar-Pharazônun Bâr "King Pharazôn [is] Lord", Bâr "Lord" appearing in the Normal form because it is the predicate. It is possible to use a Normal noun as the subject of a sentence, but in that case the following verb must have pronominal prefixes. The Normal dual is constructed by adding the ending -at, so the dual of huzun "ear" is huznat "two ears". (It will be noted that the vowel of the syllable preceding the ending -at may disappear, thereby producing a new consonant cluster, like zn in this case - but this depends on what class the noun belongs to; long vowels are not lost). The Normal plural is formed by somehow introducing the long vowel î in the final syllable, the plural of huzun being huzîn "ears". (In some classes of nouns, î is added to the noun as a new final syllable, as in batân "road", pl. batâni - but also batîna.) Note the distinction between dual and plural: One might think that the dual simply denotes two things and the plural denotes three or more things, but it is not quite as simple as that. Duals are used in the case of natural pairs, like huznat "two ears (of one person)". If we chop off one of Dick's ears and put it on a table together with one of Tom's ears, the Númenóreans would say that huzin and not huznat are lying on the table: the ears do not constitute a natural pair. Only in archaic language was the dual used with reference to two things that belonged together only casually.

The Subjective is the form a noun is in when it is the subject of a verb; hence the name. It is also used when a noun stands in apposition to another noun, as in Ar-Pharazôn kathuphazgânun "King Pharazôn the Conqueror" (as opposed to the nominal sentence Ar-Pharazônun kathuphazgân "King Pharazôn [is/was] a conqueror", with the predicate kathuphazgân "conqueror" in the Normal form). The form can be constructed in various ways, depending on which class the noun belongs to. Strong Neuters undergo certain internal vowel-changes, like zadan "house" becoming zadân, khibil "spring" becoming khibêl and huzun "ear" becoming huzôn. (These forms are ultimately products of a-infixion or, to use Lowdham's term, "a-fortification": The inflected forms represent *zadaan, *khibail, *huzaun, aa becoming long â and ai, au being monophthongized to long ê, ô.) Weak Neuters take the ending -a, the element that was infixed in the strong nouns being suffixed instead. But the subjective of masculine and feminine nouns are formed simply by adding the endings -un and -in, respectively: Ar-Pharazônun azaggara avalôiyada, "king Pharazôn was warring against the Valar", *Zimraphelin banâth 'nAr-Pharazôn "Zimraphel [is] King Pharazôn's wife". (The latter example I had to construct myself, for Tolkien/Lowdham provided no examples of the feminine subjective in -in. As observed by Erendis in UT:207, we don't hear too much about Númenórean women!) It will be noted that though the verb "is" is understood in Adûnaic, its subject still appears in the subjective form. Common nouns take the ending -(a)n in the singular Subjective. The plural subjective is formed by adding the ending -a in the case of Neuter nouns and -im otherwise; the dual lengthens the -at of the Normal to -ât.

The Objective is not an independent form of the noun, but occurs only in compounds. It is formed by adding a u to the noun, as an infix or a suffix, often displacing another vowel or causing the vowel of the previous syllable to disappear: the Objectives of minal "heaven", azra "sea", huzun "ear", batân "road" are minul, azru, huzun/huznu, batânu, respectively. The Objective is used as the first element in compounds when the second element denotes an agent that does something to the first element. For instance, Quenya Eärendil "Sea-lover" translates into Adûnaic as Azrubêl with azra "sea" in its Objective form azru because the sea is the object of the love of the "lover". Azrabêl with "sea" in the Normal form still means "Sea-lover", but then in the sense of "lover from the sea" or something similar. Sometimes the "Object" relationship between the first and the second element of the compound may be somewhat ill-defined. In the Adûnaic equivalent of Quenya Meneltarma, the Pillar of Heaven, minal "heaven, sky" occurs in its Objective form minul: Minultârik. The idea is that the târik or pillar is supporting the sky, so that the sky is somehow the object of what the pillar "does". - The Objective has no plural or dual form; it is always singular. Hence the Adûnaic version of Varda's title "Starkindler" is not Gimlu-nitîr with gimli "star" in its objective form gimlu, for that would mean "kindler of a (single, particular) star". The form used is Gimilnitîr, gimil "stars" being an uninflected collective (hence grammatically "singular"). See SD:427-428. There are, however, a few compounds in our corpus where the prefixed Objective does seem to have a plural or at least numberless meaning; see the entries Ar-Balkumagân and Nimruzîr in the wordlist below. Perhaps Tolkien revised the grammar so that the Objective may sometimes be numberless rather than strictly singular.

Adûnaic has no true genitive. Instead, compounds are often used; "the Land of Aman" may be expressed by what corresponds to "the Aman-land". Possession is typically expressed by the prefix an- "to, of", often reduced to 'n: as in Bâr 'nAnadûnê, "Lord of Anadûnê", Narîka 'nBâri 'nAdûn "The Eagles of the Lords of the West" (SD:251, 428).

介系詞

Lowdham's Report mentions a few "adverbial 'prepositional' elements": ô "from", ad, ada "to, towards", "with", "at". These elements are suffixed to the "Normal" form of the noun; in Lowdham's Report, they are not counted as case endings. One more such prepositional element is apparently dalad "under", as in ugru-dalad "under [the] Shadow". This dalad may incorporate -ad "to", for the context shows that the meaning is not stationary position under the Shadow, but movement to the position under it: Êruhînim dubdam ugru-dalad, "the Eruhíni fell under the Shadow".

We have several examples of ada "to, towards, against, into, -ward": Avalôiyada "against [the] Valar", akhâsada "into [the] chasm", azûlada "eastward". There are examples of "with" and ô "from" in the phrase sâibêth-mâ Êruvô "with [the] assent of [lit. from] Eru". In both Avalôiyada and Êruvô a glide consonant appears between the final vowels i and u of the noun stems and the suffixed elements: y and v, respectively. See SD:424.

The "genitive" particle an, 'n discussed above may be considered just another prepositional affix, though prefixed instead of suffixed.

形容詞

Attested adjectives include words like izindi "straight", burôda "heavy", êphalak far away (emphatic doubling êphal êphalak far far away), and also (in SD:435) anadûni "western". It is not known how forms like the comparative or the superlative are formed, if Adûnaic had such forms at all. Unlike the situation in languages like German, "there is no m[asculine,] f[eminine] or n[euter] form of adjectives" (SD:425). But it appears that the adjective does agree with the noun it describes in number: The adjectives dulgî "black" and lôkhî "crooked" show the ending î, an Adûnaic plural marker. The nouns they describe are also plural: bawîba dulgî "black [were the] winds", kâtha batîna lôkhî "all roads [are] crooked".

A little can be learnt about adjective formation. The adjective anadûni "western" is formed from the noun adûni "the West". As an is a particle meaning "of", anadûni is literally *"of the West", but it may be taken as an adjective and inflected as such. King Ar-Pharazôn is called "the Golden" in the Akallabêth, and pharaz means gold. If pharazôn is the word for "golden", the ending -ôn must be an adjective-former. But it may also be a noun derived from pharaz, literally *"Golden One"; -ôn is indeed listed as a nominal ending in SD:425.

We are told that "adjectives normally precede nouns" (SD:428). Bawîba dulgî "winds black" does not mean "black winds", it is a nominal sentence meaning "[the] winds were black" (SD:iii).

副詞

Two adverbs occur in our small corpus: tâidô "once" and îdô "now", the latter with the variant form îdôn. It appears that the form with final n is used before words beginning in a vowel (including the semi-vowel Y: îdôn Yôzâyan). Cf. the distribution of a/an in English, though an is not used before semi-vowels. The noun Adûn "West" can evidently be used in the adverbial/allativic sense "westward". The particle "don't, *not" (SD:250) may also be classified as an adverb.

分詞

We have two examples of a past participle in -ân: zabathân "humbled" and zîrân "loved, beloved". This ending is certainly cognate with Primitive Quendian *-nâ, Quenya -na or -ina. Both of the participles follow the word they describe.

Only two numerals are known. satta "two" and hazid "seven" (SD:427, 428, hazad in SD:247). The base for "one" is said to be ?IR (SD:432, ? = glottal stop), whence the divine name Êru, The One (Quenya Eru), but the actual form of the numeral "one" is not given. We are told that all the cardinal numerals except "one" are actually nouns. They follow their noun: gimlî hazid "seven of stars" = seven stars.

代名詞

No independent Adûnaic pronouns are known, though they must have existed. Some pronominal elements can be isolated from verbs; see below. SD:425 states that Adûnaic "distinguishes gender (or rather sex) in the pronouns of the third person", and according to SD:435 u and i "are the bases of pronominal stems for 'he' and 'she' " - but it is not clear what the actual words for "he" and "she" are. Hi-Akallabêth is translated "She-that-hath-fallen" (SD:247), suggesting that "she" is hi. May "he" be *hu? (Compare Hebrew hu' "he", hi' "she".) The word nênud is translated "on us"; perhaps "we" or "us" is *nên? (See also list of pronominal prefixes in the section about the Verb below.)

動詞

Christopher Tolkien extracts the following information from a few jottings his father made about the Adûnaic verb: "There were three classes of verbs: I Biconsonantal, as kan 'hold'; II Triconsonantal, as kalab 'fall down'; III Derivatives, as azgârâ- 'wage war', ugrudâ- 'overshadow'. There were four tenses: (3) continuative (past); (4) the past tense ('often used as pluperfect when aorist is used = past, or as future perfect when aorist = future'). The future, subjunctive, and optative were represented by auxiliaries; and the passive was rendered by the impersonal verb forms 'with subject in accusative'." (SD:439; (1) aorist ('corresponding to English "present", but used more often than that as historic present or past in narrative'); (2) continuative (present); what is here called the "accusative" must be the "Normal" form of the noun.) Hence, Adûnaic expressed a passive construction like "he was seen" by what corresponds to "him saw", i.e. "[someone] saw him".

The "derivatives" referred to are evidently verbs derived from nouns; ugrudâ- "overshadow" is clearly derived from ugru "shadow". Azgârâ- "wage war" probably incorporates a noun "war" (azgâ? azgâr?).

These are the inflected verbs that occur in Lowdham's Report and in the final forms of the Adûnaic fragments (I give the subject of the verbs because the verb may somehow agree with its subject).

Verbs translated by the English past tense:

unakkha "he-came". Obviously a form of NAKH "come, approach".
dubdam "[the Eruhíni] fell"
yurahtam "[the Lords of the West] broke"
hikallaba "she-fell-down" (she = Númenor)
ukallaba "[the Lord] fell" Bâr ukallaba "the Lord fell", bârun (u)kallaba "it was the Lord who fell" (see SD:429). These are forms of KALAB, SD:416, 439.
ayadda "[the straight road] went".
usaphda "he understood" (base SAPHAD, SD:421)

There is also the continuative past tense in azaggara "[Ar-Pharazôn] was warring".

There are only a few verbs that are translated by the English present tense:

yanâkhim. "[the Eagles] are at hand." (SD:251) The verb yanâkhim, here translated "are at hand", is clearly derived from the verbal base NAKH "come, approach" (SD:416).
yakalubim "[the mountains] lean over." Evidently a form of KALAB "fall down". (SD:251)

There is one example of what seems to be a kind of subjunctive: du-phursâ "[seas] so-as-to-gush".

There is one example of an imperative: Bâ kitabdahê! "Don't touch me!" (SD:250) is the negation "don't, not"; Elvish cognates are known (WJ:370-371).

Before these we can analyze the verbal forms themselves, various affixes must be identified and the basic verb-form isolated.

Plural verbs show the ending -m: yanâkhim "(they) approach", yakalubim "(they) lean over", dubdam "(they) fell", yurahtam "(they) broke". (We may add nam "are" from the earlier form of the fragment given in SD.312, clearly related to the Elvish base NA "to be", LR:374.)

Most verbs have pronominal prefixes. They are translated by English pronouns only when the subject of the verb is not expressed by a separate word:

u- "he" in unakkha "he-came", ukallaba "[he] fell", usaphda "he understood".
hi- "she" in hikallaba "she-fell-down" (compare ukallaba above)
yu- and ya- "they": yurahtam "(they) broke" (they = the Lords of the West), yanâkhim *"(they) are coming" (they = the Eagles), yakalubim "(they) lean over" (they = the mountains). Concerning possible distinctions between yu- and ya-, see note below.
ki- "you"? in Bâ kitabdahê "don't [you] touch me" (see below).
a- "it"? in ayadda "went", the subject being an inanimate object (a road).

These elements must be prefixed to the verb when its subject occurs in the Normal case (this subject must immediately precede the verb). The pronominal prefixes may also be employed in cases where the subject occurs in the subjective case (as in Bârim an-Adûn yurahtam dâira "the Lords of the West broke the Earth"), but are not required.

NOTE: Based on the example dubdam "[they] fell", I argued in earlier versions of this article that du- might mean "they", but as Matthieu Kervran pointed out to me, the du- is probably part of a base *DUBUD "fall". I had assumed that the stem was *BADAM, but the ending -am is probably inflectional (composed of a past tense marker *-a and plural marker *-m, to be compared to -am in yurahtam "they broke"). The subject of the verb dubdam, namely Êruhînim, occurs in the Subjective case, so no pronominal prefix should be needed. - The two different prefixes for "they", yu- and ya-, may well correspond to the endings u- "he" and a- *"it". Hence, yu- refers to a group of males (the subject of yurahtam being the Lords of the West), while ya- refers to a group of things or animals (the subjects of yakalubim and yanâkhim being mountains and eagles, respectively). May there be a prefix *yi- (for *yhi-) meaning "they" of a group of females, corresponding to sg. hi- "she"?

In our sole example of an imperative, the cry bâ kitabdahê! "don't touch me!" (250), evidently means "not, don't". Kitabdahê, then, must mean "touch me". It may be that the base for "touch" is *TABAD, here represented by -tabda-, with a pronominal prefix ki- *"you" (listed above) and a suffix -hê "me". But it has also been suggested that -is an imperative ending, and that the literal meaning of bâ kitabdahê is simply *"not you touch". While nearly all the pronominal elements known from Adûnaic can be compared to Elvish elements of similar meaning, there are no Quendian first person elements even remotely similar to -. This fact may support the latter interpretation of this suffix.

Removing the pronominal prefixes and the plural marker -m where necessary, we arrive at the following basic forms:

Translated by English present tenses: nâkhi "is at hand, *comes" (base NAKH "come, approach"), kalubi "leans over" (base evidently KALAB "fall"). It may be that the i is actually be part of a plural ending -im (compare the Subjective plural ending as in Bârim "Lords"), so that the verbal forms are simply nâkh, kalub - but there is no evidence either way, and the system would be more symmetrical if we assume that the -i is part of the basic inflected form of the verb.

Translated by English past tenses or past continuative constructions: nakkha "came" (base NAKH "come, approach"), dubda "fell" (base *DUBUD), rahta "broke" (*RAHAT), kallaba "fell down" (KALAB), yadda "went" (*YAD), azaggara "was warring" (said to be a derived verb, the basic form being given as azgârâ- in SD:439).

Probable subjunctive: du-phursâ "so-as-to-gush" (*PHURUS).

Imperative: tabda or tabdahê.

A rather tentative interpretation:

The "present continuative" form of biconsonantal bases is formed by A-fortification of the stem-vowel (turning a, i, u into â, ê, ô) and the ending -i. Hence nâkhi "is at hand, *comes" from NAKH. (We must assume that a stem like ZIR "love" would have the present tense *zêri, while RUTH "scar" would have the present tense *rôthi.) Triconsonantal bases evidently form their present tense after the pattern 1-CV-2-U-3-I (sc. by placing the Characteristic Vowel between the two first consonants, inserting the vowel u between the second and the third consonant and adding the ending -i). Hence kalubi "leans over, *is falling" from KALAB "fall". No example shows how the present tense of a derived verb is formed.

The past tense of a biconsonantal base is formed by doubling the final consonant and adding the ending -a. Hence NAKH "come, approach" has the past tense nakkha (KH producing the aspirate kkh, sc. k + ach-Laut, when doubled). The form yadda "went" evidently represents a simple doubling d > dd (stem *YAD). When it comes to the past tense of triconsonantal bases, two distinct patterns are found in the material. All the forms show the ending -a, just like the past tenses of biconsonantal bases, but the behaviour of the second consonant of the stem differs. Three verbs are derived on the pattern 1-CV-23-A, with no vowel between the second and the third consonant: saphda "understood" (SAPHAD), dubda "fell" (*DUBUD) and rahta "broke" (*RAHAT). But the verb kallaba "fell" from KALAB behaves differently, evidencing a pattern 1-CV-22-CV-3-A instead: The second consonant is doubled and the Characteristic Vowel persists before the last consonant of the stem. Is this really the same past tense form as the above? May the tense form of KALAB that corresponds to saphda, dubda, rahta not rather be kalba, and may the forms of SAPHAD and *DUBUD that correspond to kallaba not rather be sapphada and dubbuda? Tolkien did use kalba before he changed the form to kallaba (with the prefix hi- for "she" in both cases); see SD:288. Did he change the tense or revise the grammar? I suspect that he simply decided to use another tense. Why may there be two forms that both translate into past tenses in English? Tolkien noted that besides the continuative past form, Adûnaic has an aorist "corresponding to English 'present', but used more often than that as historic present or past in narrative" (SD:439). It may be, then, that one of the "past" forms we have identified represents the aorist used as past in narrative, while the other "past" form is the past continuative. In that case, which is which? Our sole inflected example of a derived verb, azaggara "was warring", would by its English translation seem to be a continuative past form. The more basic form is given in SD:439 as azgârâ- "wage war". Interestingly, the continuative form doubles the second consonant g. Do we dare to assign a continuative meaning to all the verbs that double the second consonant of the stem, so that nakkha, yadda, and kallaba would mean *"was coming", *"was going", *"was falling" rather than simply "came, went, fell"? And do we similarly dare to declare saphda, dubda and rahta as aorists? (corresponding to continuative past forms *sapphada, *dubbuda etc.)

The only example of a subjunctive, said in SD:439 to be formed by some kind of auxiliary, is du-phursa "so-as-to-gush". May the prefixed element du- represent the auxiliary? Phursa, clearly representing a triconsonantal stem *PHURUS "gush", is by itself similar to the form tentatively identified as an aorist above. So, once again tentatively, we conclude that the Adûnaic subjunctive is formed by prefixing du- to a form similar to the aorist. The subjunctive does not take the plural ending -m, even if its subject (in this case "seas") is plural.

The imperative verb buried in the phrase bâ kitabdahê "don't touch me" is either tabdahê or tabda, depending on whether we take the ending - to be an imperative ending or a pronominal suffix "me". Tabda (apparently representing a triconsonantal base *TABAD) is again similar to the form tentatively above identified as the aorist. We must conclude that the Adûnaic imperative is either identical in form to the aorist or is formed by adding the suffix - to the aorist.

字詞總集

In some cases no gloss can be given; Tolkien/Lowdham simply mentioned a word-form to illustrate some point regarding phonology or derivation, but did not gloss the word in question. Long vowels are marked by circumflexes; the main source (Lowdham's Report) uses macrons instead, but circumflexes are used in the narrative texts. Unless otherwise stated, the page numbers refer to Sauron Defeated. The digraphs th, ph, kh represent spirants (th as in think, ph = f and kh = German ach-Laut), while tth, kkh are aspirates (t + th, k + kh); pph, not exemplified, is similarly p + f (see SD:419). "Bases" are in capital letters. The earlier forms of Lowdham's "fragments" (SD:311-312), obsoleted by Tolkien's revisions, are excluded. So are a few other forms and names that do not seem to be valid at the point where Tolkien abandoned Adûnaic. A few obsolete forms are mentioned under the entry for the form that replaced them, but are not given separate entries. Concerning the names of the Númenórean kings, page references are given to Unfinished Tales rather than LotR Appendix A, since most copies of UT have a uniform pagination.


          -a Subjective ending for plural Neuters (430)
          abâr "strength, endurance, fidelity" (431). Evidently related to bâr "lord".
          -ad, -ada "to, towards" (pronominal affixes) (429) Cf. Avalôiyada, akhâsada.
          Adrahil masculine name (PM:439), replaced Agrahil.
          adûn "west, westward" (247, 435)
          Adûnâim *"Númenóreans", or perhaps rather *"Dúnedain" (426)
          agan "death", personified Agân "Death" (426; masculine when personified, otherwise neuter). Cf. agannâlo "death-shadow" (247)
          Agathurush *"Fenland of Shadow" = Sindarin Gwathló (UT:263)
          Aglahad masculine name (PM:440)
          AK(A)LAB(A), (A)KALBA evidently modifications of KALAB, not translated (418).
          Akallabêth "She-that-is-fallen" (312) (also hi-Akallabêth), name of the sunken Númenor.
          akhâsada "into [the] chasm" (247). (Incorporates -ada; hence *akhâs "chasm"?)
          Alkarondas "Castle of the Sea", name of Ar-Pharazôn's ship (PM:156, spelt Alcarondas in SD:385). Seems to have replaced Aglarrâma of the same meaning. Others take Alcarondas as being properly a Quenya form, translation of the actual Adûnaic name Aglarrâma - but neither name is easy to match with the translation (?) "Castle of the Sea".
          Amatthâni "Land of Aman" (assimilated from Amân-thâni) (435)
          ammî, ammê "mother" (434)
          an adjectival prefix with genitival meaning, "of", often reduced to 'n: (435): Narîka 'nBâri 'nAdûn "The Eagles of the Lords of the West" (251), thâni anAmân, thâni n'Amân "Land of Aman" (435) (also Amatthâni).
          -an Subjective ending for Common nouns (also -n) (430)
          anâ "homo, human being" (426, 434, fully inflected in 437); masculine anû "a male, man", feminine anî "a female" (434) (more technical words than naru, kali "man, woman").
          Anadûnê "Westernesse, Númenor" (247, 426)
          anadûni "western" (426, 435)
          Ar-Abattarîk "Tar-Ardamin" (UT:222). Adûnaic *Abatta = Quenya Arda?
          Ar-Adûnakhôr "Tar-Herunúmen", The Lord of the West (UT:222)
          Ar-Balkumagân "Tar-Ciryatan", *"King Shipwright" (PM:151). Surprisingly, the name seems to incorporate the Objective of *balak "ship", though this should mean "builder of a (particular) ship", as the Objective has no plural form. Tar-Ciryatan "built a great fleet of royal ships" (UT:221), not just one. Cf. Gimilnitîr vs. Gimlu-nitîr; but for another example of a "plural" or numberless Objective see Nimruzîr. Did Tolkien reject the idea that the Objective is singular only?
          Ar-Belzagar "Tar-Calmacil" (UT:222). The Quenya name seems to incorporate macil = "sword", Adûnaic *zagar? (This element would in any case be related to the verb azgarâ- "wage war".) Much less probably, the Quenya name may contain calma "lamp" = Adûnaic *bel or *belza?
          Ar-Gimilzôr "Tar-Telemnar" (UT:223). Telemnar may mean *"silver-flame", but the Adûnaic name seems to incorporate gimil "stars".
          Ar-Inziladûn "Tar-Palantir". (UT:223) The Quenya name means "the Far-sighted", but Adûnaic Inziladûn means "Flower of the West" (UT:227).
          Arminalêth = Quenya Armenelos, name of a city (PM:145).
          Ar-Pharazôn "King Pharazôn, Tar-Calion" (435). From pharaz. Subjective Ar-Pharazônun (247). Ar-Pharazôn kathuphazgânun "King Pharazôn the Conqueror" (429)
          Ar-Sakalthôr "Tar-Falassion" (UT:223) The Quenya name seems to incorporate falassë "shore" = Adûnaic *sakal?
          Ar-Zimraphel "Tar-Míriel" (UT:224), see Zimraphel. Replaced Zimrahil, PM:155.
          Ar-Zimrathôn "Tar-Hostamir" (UT:223). The Quenya name incorporates mir (mírë) "jewel" = Adûnaic *zimra; cf. Zimraphel = Míriel.
          Âru "King", Âru n'Adûnâi "King of the Anadunians" (429)
          ASAD ??? (421)
          Asdi ??? Often pronounced azdi. A derivative of the base ASAD. (421)
          -at dual ending (429)
          ATLA ??? Also in the form TAL(A). (418)
          attû, attô "father" (434)
          Avalê "goddess, *Valië" (428)
          Avalôi "*the Valar, Powers" (305), Subjective pl. Avalôim (241); Avalôiyada "against [the] Valar" (247), incorporating -ada.
          Avallôni "*Avallónë" (241, 305)
          Avradî "Varda" (428)
          ayadda "went" (247)
          azaggara "was warring", evidently a form of azgarâ- (247 cf. 439)
          azar "star" - so according to PM:372, but in Lowdham's Report the word for "star" is gimli, and azra (in SD:431 azar, later changed) means "sea".
          azgarâ- "wage war" (439), cf. azaggara and Ar-Belzagar.
          azra "sea", fully inflected in 431. Objective azru- in Azrubêl (q.v.); Subjective pl. azrîya in 247; also in azra-zâin "sea-lands" (435).
          Azrubêl "Sea-lover" (= Quenya Eärendil) (429, 305)
          azûlada "eastward" (247), incorporating -ada.
          "don't!" (250)
          *balak "ship" (pl. balîk, q.v.), Objective balku- in Ar-Balkumagân, q.v. Cf. huzun "ear", pl. huzîn, Objective huznu (430).
          balîk "ships" (247). Sg. *balak?
          banâth "wife" (fully inflected in 437)
          Bâr "Lord" (428, fully inflected in 438), Subjective bârun in 429; Barîm an-Adûn "[the] Lords of [the] West", the Valar. (247) Here the Subjective plural is barîm; on p. 438 it is given as bârîm, that may be more correct.
          batân "road, path", pl. batîna (247, fully inflected in 431; notice Note 16 on p. 435)
          *bawâb "wind" (see bawîba)
          bawîba "winds", Subjective pl. (247) Sg. *bawâb? (Cf. batân "road", pl. batîna.)
          bêth "expression, saying, word" (but agental "sayer" as the final element in compounds, as in izindu-bêth). (427)
          BITH "say" (416)
          burôda "heavy" (247)
          dâira "Earth" (247)
          dâur "gloom" (earlier *daw'r) (423)
          DAWAR *"gloom" (see dâur)
          dolgu "night" (with evil connotations - contrast lômi) (306)
          dubdam "fell" (pl. verb) (247)
          dulgî "black" (pl.) (247) Evidently from the same base as dolgu "night".
          du-phursâ "so as to gush" (247)
          êphalak "far away"; êphal êphalak "far far away" (247)
          Êru "the One", God (Quenya Eru); Êruvô "from Êru" (248, 249); Êruhînim = Quenya Eruhíni, "the children of God" (247 cf. 249)
          gimil "stars", an uninflected collective referring to the starry sky in general. (427) Gimilnitîr "Star-kindler" = Quenya Elentári, title of Varda (428). Gimlu-nîtir "kindler of a (particular) star", deliberate mistranslation of Elentári to illustrate the point that the Objective is always singular (428).
          Gimilkhâd masculine name, seems to incorporate gimil "stars" (UT:223)
          GIMLI ??? Variant forms and derivatives are listed in 425. 434 gives GIM'L, plus a derivative GAIMAL (434).
          gimli "star", pl. gimlî (427). Fully inflected in 431.
          hazad "seven" (247). Any connection with Khuzdul Khazâd "Dwarves", given that the Dwarves were divided into Seven Houses? (427, 428 gives hazid.)
          hi-Akallabêth "She-that-hath-fallen", Númenor. (247)
          hikallaba "she fell down" (247)
          huzun "ear", dual huznat "two ears" (428), fully inflected in 430, see also note 15 on 435.
          Îbal masculine name (UT:194)
          idô "now", evidently idôn when the next word begins in a vowel, cf. English a/an (247)
          IGIML ??? Variant forms are and derivatives are listed in 422-423.
          igmil "star-shaped figure", pl. igmîl (427)
          -im Subjective plural ending for all other nouns than Neuters (430). Evidently in Adûnâim, Avalôim, q.v.
          Imrahil masculine name (UT:246), identified as a Númenórean name in LotR Appendix E.
          Imrazôr masculine name (UT:447)
          -in Subjective ending for weak Feminines (430).
          Indilzar "Elros" (PM:164)
          inzil "Flower", isolated from Inziladûn "Flower of the West" (UT:227) and Rothinzil "Foam-flower"; cf. also the feminine name Inzilbêth ("Flower-sayer"???) mentioned in the Akallabêth.
          izindi "straight" (247)
          izindu-bêth "true-sayer, prophet" (427)
          izrê (< izrêi < izrêyî) "sweetheart, beloved" (424, glossed and fully inflected in 438). From the base ZIR.
          ?IR "one, alone" (? = glottal stop) (432)
          kadar "city"; kadar-lâi "city folk" (435)
          kadô "and so" (247)
          KALAB "fall" (416); kalab "fall down" (439)
          kali "woman" (434)
          kallaba "fell", a form of KALAB (429)
          kan "hold" (439)
          KARAB ??? (415) The base of karab?
          karab "horse" (pl. karîb) (434). Masculine karbû "stallion" (434, 435), feminine karbî "mare" (434).
          kâtha "all" (247)
          kathuphazgân "conqueror", Subjective kathuphazgânun (429). This word may seem to incorporate the objective of (a word related to) kâtha "all" above. Is a "conqueror" perceived as *"one who subdues all/everything" or similar? The final element *phazgân unfortunately cannot be interpreted, but it may be an agental formation (same ending -ân as in [Ar-]Balkumagân *"[King] Ship-maker"; here it apparently does not mark a past participle).
          kêw, kêu ??? From the base KIW (424).
          khâu, khô "crow", pl. kwâwi(m), khôi (426)
          khibil "spring", fully inflected in 430.
          KIRIB ??? (415)
          kitabdahê! "touch me!" (from the phrase bâ kitabdahê "don't touch me!" (250) Base *TABAD "touch" (-tabda-) with pronominal affixes *ki- "you" and *- "me"?
          KIW ??? Cf. kêw, kêu. (424)
          kôy, kôi ??? From the base KIW. Cf. KUY (424)
          KUL'B ??? (422) The source of kulub? Variant forms and derivatives are listed in 422-423.
          KULUB ??? The source of kulub? Variant forms and derivatives are listed in 425.
          kulub "roots, edible vegetables that are roots not fruits" (431), an uninflected collective. Pl. kulbî "roots" of a definite number of roots of plants.
          (424)
          KUY ??? Cf. kôy, kôi (424)
          lôkhî "crooked" (pl.) (247)
          lômi "night" (414), with no evil connotations (306) - contrast dolgu
          - "with" (429)
          *magân *"wright", isolated from Ar-Balkumagân, q.v.
          manô "spirit" (from *manaw-, *manau), pl. manôi (424, fully inflected in 438)
          mîk "baby boy" (427)
          minal "heaven, sky" (414), Objective minul in Minul-Târik "Pillar of Heaven", name of a mountain; Quenya Meneltarma (429, 241). Minal-târik would mean "Heavenly Pillar" (429). Cf. also Minal-zidar "Poise in Heaven" (200). (241 gives minil instead of minal.)
          mîth "baby girl, maid-child" (427), "little girl" (437), fully inflected in 438
          miyât "(infant) twins" (427)
          MIYI "small" (427)
          -n Subjective ending for Common nouns (also -an) (430)
          nadroth "hind-track", the wake of a boat; hence nad = "hind, *back"? (PM:376)
          NAK- ??? (422). Variant forms and derivatives are listed in 422-423.
          NAKH "come, approach" (416). Cf. unakkha.
          nâlo "shadow", isolated from agannâlo, q.v.
          *narâk "eagle"? Pl. narîka; cf. batân "road", pl. batîna.
          nardu "soldier" (fully inflected in 438)
          narîka "the Eagles" (sg. *narâk?) Narîka 'nBâri 'nAdûn "The Eagles of the Lords of the West" (251)
          naru "man, male" (434, fully inflected in 437, that also gives an alternative form narû)
          nênud "on us" (247)
          nîlo "moon", personified Nîlû (426 - masculine when personified, otherwise neuter). Fully inflected in 431.
          NIMIR "shine" (416)
          nimir "Elf" (fully inflected in 436, Normal pl. Nimîr, Objective nimru- in Nimruzîr, q.v.) Cf. also WJ:386: "By the Dúnedain the Elves were called Nimîr (the Beautiful)."
          Nimriyê "Nimrian [= Elvish] tongue", Quenya ("Avallonian") (414)
          Nimruzîr "Elendil", "Elf-lover" (247). The use of Objective nimru- for "Elf" is surprising: As the Objective is always singular, this should mean "lover of a particular Elf" rather than "lover of Elves in general". Cf. Gimilnitîr vs. Gimlu-nitîr.
          Nimruzîrim "Elf-friends" (PM:151), Subjective pl. of Nimruzîr.
          nîph "fool" (426), also nûph (437)
          nithil "girl" (427, fully inflected in 436)
          nitîr "kindler", isolated from Gimilnitîr, q.v.
          nûlu "night", with evil connotations (306)
          nûph "fool" (437), also nîph (426)
          nuphâr "parent", dual nuphrât "father and mother" as a pair (434)
          "from", prepositional affix. In Êruvô.
          obroth "fore-cutting", the curling water at the prow of a ship (so ob = "(be)fore"?) (PM:376)
          "hand" (< *pa3a), pl. pâi (416, 426)
          PA3 probable form of the base that yielded , q.v. (416)
          pharaz "gold" (426, also in LotR Appendix E). Cf. Ar-Pharazôn.
          phazân "prince, king's son" (436).
          pûh "breath" (426), fully inflected in 431.
          raba "dog", masculine rabô, feminine rabê "bitch" (434, 437)
          roth "cutting, track" (from a stem RUTH; in nadroth, obroth). Roth was also used of the track of boats on water and could therefore be used to mean "foam" (PM:376); cf. Rothinzil below.
          Rôthinzil "Foam-flower" = Quenya Vingilot, Eärendil's ship (360). See inzil. Spelt Rothinzil in the opening paragraphs of the Akallabêth and in PM (e.g. on page 370); the latter reading should probably be preferred.
          rûkh "shout" (426)
          RUTH "scar, score, furrow", stem yielding words for plough and ploughing, but "when applied to boats it referred to their track on water" (PM:376). See roth, nadroth, obroth.
          SAPAD ??? (421) Cf. sapda.
          SAPHAD "understand" (416) Cf. usaphda.
          saibêth "assent"; saibêth-mâ "with assent" (247)
          sapda ??? (often pronounced sabda). A derivative of SAPAD. (421)
          sapthân (p often being pronounced f) "wise-man, wizard" (421)
          satta "two" (428)
          sûla "trump" (419)
          sulum "mast" (419) (explained to be a cognate of Quenya tyulma, here derived from Primitive Elvish *kyulumâ, evidently obsoleting the earlier reconstruction *tyulmâ in the Etymologies [LR:395])
          tâidô "once" (not "one time", but "once upon a time")
          TAL(A) ??? Also in the form ATLA. (418)
          tamar "smith" (fully inflected in 436)
          târik "pillar", in Minul-târik "Pillar of Heaven" (429). Dual târikat (430).
          thâni anAmân, thâni n'Amân "Land of Aman" (435). Also Amatthâni.
          ugru "shadow", ugru-dalad "under [the] Shadow" (247; cf. 306). Verb ugrudâ- "overshadow" (439)
          ukallaba "fell" (pl. verb) (429)
          Ulbar masculine name (UT:195)
          -un Subjective ending for Masculine nouns (430)
          unakkha "he came", form of NAKH (247)
          ûrê "sun", personified Ûrî (426 - feminine when personified, otherwise neuter); ûriyat "sun and moon" (428; actually Ûri + the dual ending, the "moon" being understood); ûrinîl(uw)at "sun and moon" (a compound of Ûri and Nîlu "Sun" and "Moon" + the dual ending), ûriyat nîlo yet another way of expressing "sun and moon", with the dual ending added to the first and the latter following in the singular.
          urîd "the mountains" (251). Sg. *urud?
          *urud "mountain", pl. urîd (251). Cf. huzun "ear", pl. huzîn (430)
          urug "bear" (426), urgî "female bear" (435)
          uruk "goblin, orc" (fully inflected in 436)
          usaphda "he understood" (420), from SAPHAD. Less commonly pronounced usaptha.
          yakalubîm "lean over", pl. (251) Evidently a form of KALAB "fall down".
          yanâkhim "are at hand, *approach" (SD:251). Evidently a form of NAKH "come, approach".
          Yôzâyan "Land of Gift", a name of Númenor (Quenya Andor). (In 241, 247, cf. UT:184). Incorporates zâyan (so *= "gift"?)
          yurahtam "broke", pl. (247)
          zabathân "humbled" (247)
          zadan "house", fully inflected in 430.
          zâin "lands", pl. of zâyin. From *zâyîn; in azra-zâin.
          zâira "longing" (247), zaira, zâir in 423.
          Zamîn feminine name (UT:194)
          zâyan "land" (423), pl. zâin. In Yôzâyan, q.v.
          - "at" (429)
          zigûr "wizard" (fully inflected in 437). Subjective Zigûrun "the Wizard" in 247, referring to Sauron.
          Zimraphel "Míriel", feminine name. *Zimra seems to mean "jewel"; see Ar-Zimrathôn. Quenya Míriel may be interpreted "jewel-daughter", so Adûnaic *phel = "daughter"?
          zini "female" (noun) (fully inflected in 437, that also gives an alternative form zinî)
          ZIR "love", desire" (423), cf. -zîr "lover" in Nimruzîr.
          zirân "beloved" (247)
          zôrî "nurse" (438)

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